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Historical back ground:
Pre-colonial Somali Social Make Up: Traditionally, based on life style, livelihoods, and social make up, Somalis were divided into southern agro-pastoralists (living in and around the inter-riverine areas) and northern nomadic pastoralists living in central, north eastern and northwestern regions of the country where water resources and fertile land are relatively limited.1 Among each group, different clans and sub clans were occupying or living roughly in a known area.
Intermingling between the two groups was difficult and slow because one group is sedentary or semi sedentary and the other mobile and dynamic and mostly the northern nomads were moving towards south.2 These movements were caused mainly by the following factors: resource pull, draught or war. Some northern individuals or even families were abandoning their communities and were seeking asylum to the southerns and were assimilated (a process called Sheegad or Tolayn), while southerners were usually going to north for coranic and other religious teachings and were assimilated there as well.
Each group had their own traditional way of exploiting the natural resources mainly (land, grazing, water and animals).3 Conflicts were always happening although northerns are more aggressive and war like than the southerns which are more peaceful.
There were different social strata in both groups. Southern agro-pastoralists were practicing slavery of Bantu people brought by Arabs from East Africa even before the Italians. The slavery practiced by Somalis was extended along all costal towns and agricultural areas. In addition to that, in northern nomadic Somalis there are minorities called the untouchable which were marginalized.
Commercial activities were mainly controlled and exploited by costal dwelling communities of mixed origin (Arab, Benadiri, Indians and Somalis). The huge marine resources were not properly exploited except few costal living communities for their daily nutrition and relatively minor export trade. In both agro-pastoral and nomadic groups, there were artisans who were working on local equipments such as household utensils, production tools and traditional arms.
Causes of Conflicts: In the exploitation of the natural resources, among each group, fighting and conflicts of different nature and cause were taking place (intra group conflict), and there is an inter group fighting between agro-pastoralist and nomadic pastoralist. Causes of conflicts and the magnitude of conflicts change and vary according to the following different periods (pre colonial, Colonial, Somali Corrupted Civilian Government, Military Dictatorship and the Civil war).
Pre Colonial period (before 1880s): In pre colonial period, in southern Agro-pastoral communities, conflicts were caused mainly by dispute on farming land and water-the two Bs (farm is beer, water is biyo). Grazing issue was not a big problem at that time or was causing very rarely conflict especially in draught times.
While in northern Nomadic communities, conflicts are mainly caused by water, grazing, and live animal looting especially camels. At that time they perceived camel as a common asset/resource and not for one person or family only.
Conflicts between Agro-pastoral and Nomadic pastoralists take place when ever pastoralists attempt to graze their animals on cultivated farms or agricultural by products without permission or legal transaction because agro-pastoralists use the agricultural by products to feed their animals.
Colonial Time (1880s – 1960): While within the traditional resource exploitation and the above mentioned conflicts, their nature and causes were continuing among Somali groups and clans, with the arrival of colonial power, a new vision of resource exploitation has appeared (the use of state power) to access the natural and national resources. In southern Somalia (Italian Somaliland), land seizures and forced labor took place mostly in the area of the two rivers and their surroundings, and 95% of the enslaved Somalis were the southern agro-pastoralists.4, 5
Since Italians landed at first in the central regions especially in Hobyo in around 1880s, some of northern Somalis (from central and north eastern regions) and some Arabs from costal towns and villages came in the south with Italians either as drivers, translators, police or servants and all exploited the human and natural resources of inter-riverine area.
The North western regions were British Protectorate. Except few military personnel with British army during and after the Second World War, the Somalis living in those regions did not come into the south for lofty ambitions until the unification of the two Somalis (British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland) in 1960.
For the Colonial power however, was not easy to capture the land, they have encountered severe resistance and fighting with many losses although ultimately they won.6 When all movements against colonial power declined or ceased by any means around 1920s, Italian colony extended in all over south Somalia and exploited its resources as much as it could.
Somalis fought for independency. Both in south (Wagosha revolt, Lafole massacre, Dhanane battle and Baardhere and many other jameas as anticolonial strategy) and north - The Darawiish.
But, in seeking and fighting for independency, Somalis were of different opinion and views upon the kind of government they should have. The southern agro-pastoralists who had suffered from the colonial exploitation were advocating for federal system of governance while the northern nomadic pastoralists who have learnt the use of state power to access the national resources were advocating for a centralized unitary state.7 The Northern nomadic group won with the support gained from the outgoing colonial power.
Somali Corrupted Civilian Government Period (1960 -1969): In 1960, the two Somalis (British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland became independent and joined to form the Somali Republic). During the period (1960 -1969), state power has been used by the nomadic group to start a gradual but constant illegal appropriation of land in and around the inter-riverine areas belonging to the less belligerent agro-pastoral community. That period is the period in which Somali politics and governance went lost. No single free and fair election took place in Somalia since independence.8 Corruption, nepotism and mismanagement were the normal daily routine administration.
Resenting the unfair administration and lack of proper power sharing, some officials from British Somaliland mutinied at the very beginning – December 1961.9 There were very few developmental projects implemented by the Government with external donations most of which finished into illegal and unknown destinations. And the administrators of these projects were appointed through nepotism. There were no plans for collective development and collective interest, and the proliferation of clan based political parties went up to 143 in 1967 just to stay at power and its economic connections.10
Now, people movement from north to south is not any more traditional or by consent of the host communities; it is exercised under a powerful centralized unitary state. At last the corruption and the bad exercise of state power led to the murder of Abdirashi Ali Sharmarke- the then President of the Republic in October 15th 1969.
Although Somali Government was claiming neutrality in International political arena, ideological differences among the government elites into (pro-western and pro-eastern blocks) was growing.
Business and commerce was in the hands of Italians, Indians, and Arabs. Only few Somalis were engaged in business.
The Period of Military Regime (1969 – 1990): The strange noticeable feature of the 25 member Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC) was that a whole Somali clan (the major southern agro-pastoralist clan or Dighil Mirifle) was totally marginalized without any representation in the SRC while all other Somali clans (Hawiye, Darod and Dir) were represented including even some minority communities such as Arabs and so called Low casts.
This was deliberately engineered by the northern nomadic group paving the way for a long term land miss appropriation plan from the southern agro-pastoral clan which would be difficult if they were represented in the policy and decision making elite. However, few ministerial posts were given to some individuals of the agro-pastoral clan.
Ideological disagreement erupted during the first year of SRC in power. One member of the 25 was jailed, and two others executed. Low profile religious teachings were growing as anti Marxist movements because of which 11 Religious Leaders were executed in 1975.
Until the consolidation of the power, the military regime relatively administered the country reasonably fairly for a period of five years (1970 – 1974). Some developmental projects which were in the pipeline from the previous government have been completed and new others were implemented with external donations.
After the establishment of the Socialist party in 1975 and power is consolidated, the administration turned into a total dictatorship. Diffused human rights abuse (suppression, imprisonment, killings and property deprivation) became the normal administration. To totally legalize land confiscation, the Military regime promulgated the land reform law of 1975 stating that all the land belongs to the state. The miss appropriation process by illegal titles went to its climax. Titles for land use was mostly issued and given to the northern nomadic elites and denied to the southern agro-pastoral peasants-the owners of the land.11 The few Minters representing the agro-pastoral community feared for their posts.
In all three administrations (the colonial, the corrupted regime and the military dictatorship), whatsoever land confiscated for public purposes was not compensated to the community from which the land has been confiscated. No body could criticize a fair collective development plan, but what was going on was a partial or unilateral development strategy.
A good example is the settlement programme of the long tail draught (1974 – 1975) victims from central and northern regions to the south mainly Lower Shabelle region. The newly settled people were given farming land, water pumps, fuel, seeds, other agricultural inputs, food and medicine. While the indigenous people from whom land was confiscated, and who have cleared the land, collected local construction materials and build houses for the new comers as self help schemes under government persuasion and pressure were totally neglected and marginalized.
Commerce now is turned in the hands of Somalis. But both imported and exported items are heavily taxed. However, business was slowly growing though tightly controlled and import export license was given to particularly screened persons and companies.
With the loss of Somali Ethiopian war of 1977, dictatorship and suppression led to the social turmoil and civil unrest which ended with a clan based civil war in1990.
The civil war: The ongoing Somali phenomenon is the result of more than one century of both slavery and mismanagement. Somali people have never seen fair administration, national wisdom and justice. State power was used to access national resources (private, communal and public). Some Somali people grew up in an environment full of lofty ambitions and embezzlement of national resources. Cultural domination and racial discrimination took place during the last 45 years (since independence).
This 15 year old civil war is the maximum negative impact and expression of 45 years of socioeconomic mismanagement and bad exercise of state power. In other words, it is the result of a complexity of economic, social, cultural and politico-ideological causes. And the most critical problem is land miss appropriation and new settlements during the military regime and during this civil war.
Land miss appropriation both by illegal title and by gun barrel occurred and still occurring in southern Somalia. The reason why most of the war is still going on only in inter-riverine regions is the competition and struggle for land and labour. 12
Causes of conflict during the civil war (1990 – Present): Clan based factions are controlling the regions of the country after the collapse of the Government. Natural resources and infrastructures such as sea ports, air fields, and roads are in the hands of clan militias. Well grown business of different kinds are also in the hands of clan based business companies. International aid assistance became another very important resource and it is controlled by who controls see ports, air fields and main roads.
Some examples of bloody conflicts from 1990 to present:
In Somaliland, for around 8 months, severe conflict happened caused by competition over the control of Berbera see port and Hargeisa airport the most two revenue generating points. After a long and successful reconciliation conference Somaliland communities declared its independency from the rest of Somalia in May 1991 and established Somaliland Government.
In Puntland, severe conflict took place between religious group and traditional elders and local politicians over the control of Bosaso see port. It seems that religious group was defeated; other version says that religious group declined from the war and left the elders and politicians manage the Bosaso port. Another bloody conflict occurred after that war for the command of Puntland administration which was a struggle for power between Col. Abdullahi Yusuf and General Jama Ali Jama.
In central regions, severe fighting happened for different reasons (for the control of an entire region like Hiran, for the ownership of piece of land and the control of a natural see port like Hobyo ect)
In Mogadishu, the bloodiest war was occurred between General Aidid and Mr. Ali Mahdi in 1992. The main National see and airports are closed because of disagreement over their control. Conflicts in Mogadishu are countless and mainly are caused by struggle for power – the means to access all other resources. The last was the one happened between Mogadishu warlords and Sharia corts in which sharia corts defeated the warlords.
In the south, the communities of south western regions have established a regional administration in March 1995 in Baidoa, but the late General Aidid attached on 17th September of the same year claiming that all south western regions are under his jurisdiction. After long freedom fighting, Baay and Bakool regions have been librated on 06 June 1999 by Reewin Resitance Army (RRA). But RRA leaders fought badly over the control of Bay and Bakool regions.
Other regions such as Lower Shabelle, parts of Lower and Middle Jubba and part of Gedo are still under occupation by other Somali nomadic clan militias.
Conflict Resolution and Reconciliation: Before colonial time, the main methods used as conflict resolution were either the Somali traditional customary law (Heer or Xeer) and the Islamic law (Sharia) and some times a mixture of the two. To implement these conflict resolutions, there should be an arbitration committee. If the conflict is not so big, the arbitration committee can be from the two fighting clans or sub clans; but if the conflict is of grate magnitude, the arbitration committee will be from different neighboring clans or sub clans.
During the three administrations (Colonial, corrupted Civilian Government and Military Dictatorship) conflict resolution was a mixture of traditional customary, Islamic sharia and administrative judiciary lows. After the collapse of the Military regime, every Somali went back to his clan identity - a complete disintegration of the colonial made nation.
During the civil war, usually conflicts protract for a long time until a clan is defeated - chased away or conquered. If two clans realize that no clan can defeat the other then the two negotiate for an alliance. A good example is (two veteran rival clans - Ceyr and Marehan in central regions) now are allied in the control of Jubba valley, controlling all resources (farming land, kismayo see and airports and all business transactions in the region) and the indigenous communities are suppressed and used as cheep labor or even enslaved.
While in Lower Shabelle region, farming land, irrigation canals, Ballidogle airport, Marka and Brawa natural see ports are controlled by Ceyr clan from central regions which has conquered the indigenous clans and their land and still occupying. Rewin Resistance Army and Dighil Salvation Army (RRA and DSA) have tried to liberate but yet did not succeeded.
14 reconciliation conferences were held for Southern Somalia to end this war and rebuild the Somali nation. But so far no tangible results came out. For sure the previous 13 were failed and the last is to wait and see because of the prevailing conditions and cirmunstances. Why all these are failed? Because of the following reasons:
1. Many Somalis are not serious and sincere to the reconciliation process, because they are occupying other people’s properties (private, communal and public farming lands and private and public premises; controlling all commercial activities and routes; controlling all humanitarian aid assistance). Reconciliation leading to peace and low and order is against their personal and clan interest.
2. In all reconciliation meetings the Islamic Sharia and the traditional Somali customary law were undermined and bypassed.
3. All conferences were not self sponsored and were not Somali initiatives as Somaliland did, but were sponsored by Some International organizations that may not be aware of the root cause of the war.
4. Reconciliation did not start from bottom, but always was started from top (establishing government) while the grass root community is not yet reconciled.
5. Some people don’t want any low and order because they fear the consequences of their human rights abuses and violations.
6. Some Somali Clans don’t want to hear Federalism. They still keep their mid in centralized Unitary state
Therefore, whatsoever is established (call it Government, Administration, or something else) is boycotted by the group who doesn’t want any law and order to continue exploiting other people’s resources by force. Some body claims that there is external factors playing role in keeping south Somalia as the status quo, but why these external forces have not played their role in Somaliland? Or they have no interest in Somaliland?
Somaliland is a good example in the Horn of Africa: The Elders of former British Somali Protectorate – present Somaliland have convened only three reconciliation conferences initiated and sponsored by them and all were successful. Why? Because first of all they were serious and sincere to the process of reconciliation, secondly they have pursued the Islamic law (Sharia) and the Somali customary law (Heer/Xeer) and reconciled before establishing any sort of administration or government. Now they are living in a peaceful environment building their government giving a good example of democracy to most African Countries.
Conflict prevention: The innate and intrinsic characteristic of the majority of Somalis is tribalism, ethnicity or kinship. Whatever ideology a Somali believes including religion (proverbs such as Faqi Tolkii kam ajanno tago, Rag iska celi iyo Rabi ka baq meel islama galaan, iyo La jiifiyaana bannaan are well known in all over Somalia) the promoting motive towards the application and implementation of the believed ideology is the personal and tribe interest.
There is another acquired characteristic of Somalis especially northern nomadic pastoralists - keeping in mind that state power is the only means to access the national resources, become wealthy by embezzlement of National resources and to fight for it (and that is why they are forcibly occupying other people’s lands).
Although in the south the situation is relatively complex, in terms of ethnic diversity, resources and the magnitude of the war, it is still possible with sincere will to reconciliation by pursuing the Islamic and the traditional Somali customary laws, both based on truth, compensation and/or forgiveness.
Therefore, to avoid and prevent disastrous conflicts after other 50 or hundred years, Somalis should adopt a federal system of governance. There is no question about the failure of centralized unitary state.
Federalism is emerged as the best conflict resolution method in Eastern Africa; see Sudan, Tanzania, and Ethiopia. It seems also that Somalis are moving towards this direction. In fact, although is only on paper, but during most of the Somali reconciliation conferences, Constitutions based on federal system have been often drafted and agreed upon. And our religion - Islam is not against federal system of governance (Nidamul Wilaayaat).
Now that the popular revolt led by Islamic Sharia Courts leaders have captured Mogadishu, I would suggest Islamist leaders to talk and reconcile with the Transitional Federal Government, and the TFG to appreciate the efforts paid the courts leaders to end Somali problem for good.
Thanks to Allah
June, 10th 2006
References:
1. Abdi M. Kusow; Putting the cart Before the Horse: Contested Nationalism and the Crisis of the Nation-State in Somalia; The Red See Press, Inc.; 2004
2. Saadia Touval; Somali Nationalism: International Politics and the drive for unity in the Horn of Africa; Harvad University Press; 1963
3. E. Sylvia Pankhurst; Ex – Italian Somaliland; WATTS and CO. London; 1951
4. E. Sylvia Pankhurst; Ex – Italian Somaliland; WATTS and CO. London 1951
5. Abdi M. Kusow; Putting the cart Before the Horse: Contested Nationalism and the Crisis of the nation-State in Somalia; The Red See Press, Inc.; 2004
6. Abdi M. Kusow; Putting the cart Before the Horse: Contested Nationalism and the Crisis of the Nation-State in Somalia; The Red See Press, Inc.; 2004
7. Saadia Touval; Somali Nationalsim: International Politics and the Drive for Unity in the Horn of Africa,; Harvad University Press; 1963
8. Angelo Del Boca – Gli Italiani in Africa Orietale; 1984
9. Angelo Del Boca – Gli Italiani in Africa Orietale;1984
10. Angelo Del Boca – Gli Italiani in Africa Orietale; 1984
11. Abdi M. Kusow; Putting the cart Before the Horse: Contested Nationalism and the Crisis of the Nation-State in Somalia; The Red See Press, Inc.; 2004
12. Casanelli, Lee V. and Catherina L. Bestman: The Streuggle for Land in Southern Somalia: The war behind the war. Colorado; 1996
End
Pre-colonial Somali Social Make Up: Traditionally, based on life style, livelihoods, and social make up, Somalis were divided into southern agro-pastoralists (living in and around the inter-riverine areas) and northern nomadic pastoralists living in central, north eastern and northwestern regions of the country where water resources and fertile land are relatively limited.1 Among each group, different clans and sub clans were occupying or living roughly in a known area.
Intermingling between the two groups was difficult and slow because one group is sedentary or semi sedentary and the other mobile and dynamic and mostly the northern nomads were moving towards south.2 These movements were caused mainly by the following factors: resource pull, draught or war. Some northern individuals or even families were abandoning their communities and were seeking asylum to the southerns and were assimilated (a process called Sheegad or Tolayn), while southerners were usually going to north for coranic and other religious teachings and were assimilated there as well.
Each group had their own traditional way of exploiting the natural resources mainly (land, grazing, water and animals).3 Conflicts were always happening although northerns are more aggressive and war like than the southerns which are more peaceful.
There were different social strata in both groups. Southern agro-pastoralists were practicing slavery of Bantu people brought by Arabs from East Africa even before the Italians. The slavery practiced by Somalis was extended along all costal towns and agricultural areas. In addition to that, in northern nomadic Somalis there are minorities called the untouchable which were marginalized.
Commercial activities were mainly controlled and exploited by costal dwelling communities of mixed origin (Arab, Benadiri, Indians and Somalis). The huge marine resources were not properly exploited except few costal living communities for their daily nutrition and relatively minor export trade. In both agro-pastoral and nomadic groups, there were artisans who were working on local equipments such as household utensils, production tools and traditional arms.
Causes of Conflicts: In the exploitation of the natural resources, among each group, fighting and conflicts of different nature and cause were taking place (intra group conflict), and there is an inter group fighting between agro-pastoralist and nomadic pastoralist. Causes of conflicts and the magnitude of conflicts change and vary according to the following different periods (pre colonial, Colonial, Somali Corrupted Civilian Government, Military Dictatorship and the Civil war).
Pre Colonial period (before 1880s): In pre colonial period, in southern Agro-pastoral communities, conflicts were caused mainly by dispute on farming land and water-the two Bs (farm is beer, water is biyo). Grazing issue was not a big problem at that time or was causing very rarely conflict especially in draught times.
While in northern Nomadic communities, conflicts are mainly caused by water, grazing, and live animal looting especially camels. At that time they perceived camel as a common asset/resource and not for one person or family only.
Conflicts between Agro-pastoral and Nomadic pastoralists take place when ever pastoralists attempt to graze their animals on cultivated farms or agricultural by products without permission or legal transaction because agro-pastoralists use the agricultural by products to feed their animals.
Colonial Time (1880s – 1960): While within the traditional resource exploitation and the above mentioned conflicts, their nature and causes were continuing among Somali groups and clans, with the arrival of colonial power, a new vision of resource exploitation has appeared (the use of state power) to access the natural and national resources. In southern Somalia (Italian Somaliland), land seizures and forced labor took place mostly in the area of the two rivers and their surroundings, and 95% of the enslaved Somalis were the southern agro-pastoralists.4, 5
Since Italians landed at first in the central regions especially in Hobyo in around 1880s, some of northern Somalis (from central and north eastern regions) and some Arabs from costal towns and villages came in the south with Italians either as drivers, translators, police or servants and all exploited the human and natural resources of inter-riverine area.
The North western regions were British Protectorate. Except few military personnel with British army during and after the Second World War, the Somalis living in those regions did not come into the south for lofty ambitions until the unification of the two Somalis (British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland) in 1960.
For the Colonial power however, was not easy to capture the land, they have encountered severe resistance and fighting with many losses although ultimately they won.6 When all movements against colonial power declined or ceased by any means around 1920s, Italian colony extended in all over south Somalia and exploited its resources as much as it could.
Somalis fought for independency. Both in south (Wagosha revolt, Lafole massacre, Dhanane battle and Baardhere and many other jameas as anticolonial strategy) and north - The Darawiish.
But, in seeking and fighting for independency, Somalis were of different opinion and views upon the kind of government they should have. The southern agro-pastoralists who had suffered from the colonial exploitation were advocating for federal system of governance while the northern nomadic pastoralists who have learnt the use of state power to access the national resources were advocating for a centralized unitary state.7 The Northern nomadic group won with the support gained from the outgoing colonial power.
Somali Corrupted Civilian Government Period (1960 -1969): In 1960, the two Somalis (British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland became independent and joined to form the Somali Republic). During the period (1960 -1969), state power has been used by the nomadic group to start a gradual but constant illegal appropriation of land in and around the inter-riverine areas belonging to the less belligerent agro-pastoral community. That period is the period in which Somali politics and governance went lost. No single free and fair election took place in Somalia since independence.8 Corruption, nepotism and mismanagement were the normal daily routine administration.
Resenting the unfair administration and lack of proper power sharing, some officials from British Somaliland mutinied at the very beginning – December 1961.9 There were very few developmental projects implemented by the Government with external donations most of which finished into illegal and unknown destinations. And the administrators of these projects were appointed through nepotism. There were no plans for collective development and collective interest, and the proliferation of clan based political parties went up to 143 in 1967 just to stay at power and its economic connections.10
Now, people movement from north to south is not any more traditional or by consent of the host communities; it is exercised under a powerful centralized unitary state. At last the corruption and the bad exercise of state power led to the murder of Abdirashi Ali Sharmarke- the then President of the Republic in October 15th 1969.
Although Somali Government was claiming neutrality in International political arena, ideological differences among the government elites into (pro-western and pro-eastern blocks) was growing.
Business and commerce was in the hands of Italians, Indians, and Arabs. Only few Somalis were engaged in business.
The Period of Military Regime (1969 – 1990): The strange noticeable feature of the 25 member Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC) was that a whole Somali clan (the major southern agro-pastoralist clan or Dighil Mirifle) was totally marginalized without any representation in the SRC while all other Somali clans (Hawiye, Darod and Dir) were represented including even some minority communities such as Arabs and so called Low casts.
This was deliberately engineered by the northern nomadic group paving the way for a long term land miss appropriation plan from the southern agro-pastoral clan which would be difficult if they were represented in the policy and decision making elite. However, few ministerial posts were given to some individuals of the agro-pastoral clan.
Ideological disagreement erupted during the first year of SRC in power. One member of the 25 was jailed, and two others executed. Low profile religious teachings were growing as anti Marxist movements because of which 11 Religious Leaders were executed in 1975.
Until the consolidation of the power, the military regime relatively administered the country reasonably fairly for a period of five years (1970 – 1974). Some developmental projects which were in the pipeline from the previous government have been completed and new others were implemented with external donations.
After the establishment of the Socialist party in 1975 and power is consolidated, the administration turned into a total dictatorship. Diffused human rights abuse (suppression, imprisonment, killings and property deprivation) became the normal administration. To totally legalize land confiscation, the Military regime promulgated the land reform law of 1975 stating that all the land belongs to the state. The miss appropriation process by illegal titles went to its climax. Titles for land use was mostly issued and given to the northern nomadic elites and denied to the southern agro-pastoral peasants-the owners of the land.11 The few Minters representing the agro-pastoral community feared for their posts.
In all three administrations (the colonial, the corrupted regime and the military dictatorship), whatsoever land confiscated for public purposes was not compensated to the community from which the land has been confiscated. No body could criticize a fair collective development plan, but what was going on was a partial or unilateral development strategy.
A good example is the settlement programme of the long tail draught (1974 – 1975) victims from central and northern regions to the south mainly Lower Shabelle region. The newly settled people were given farming land, water pumps, fuel, seeds, other agricultural inputs, food and medicine. While the indigenous people from whom land was confiscated, and who have cleared the land, collected local construction materials and build houses for the new comers as self help schemes under government persuasion and pressure were totally neglected and marginalized.
Commerce now is turned in the hands of Somalis. But both imported and exported items are heavily taxed. However, business was slowly growing though tightly controlled and import export license was given to particularly screened persons and companies.
With the loss of Somali Ethiopian war of 1977, dictatorship and suppression led to the social turmoil and civil unrest which ended with a clan based civil war in1990.
The civil war: The ongoing Somali phenomenon is the result of more than one century of both slavery and mismanagement. Somali people have never seen fair administration, national wisdom and justice. State power was used to access national resources (private, communal and public). Some Somali people grew up in an environment full of lofty ambitions and embezzlement of national resources. Cultural domination and racial discrimination took place during the last 45 years (since independence).
This 15 year old civil war is the maximum negative impact and expression of 45 years of socioeconomic mismanagement and bad exercise of state power. In other words, it is the result of a complexity of economic, social, cultural and politico-ideological causes. And the most critical problem is land miss appropriation and new settlements during the military regime and during this civil war.
Land miss appropriation both by illegal title and by gun barrel occurred and still occurring in southern Somalia. The reason why most of the war is still going on only in inter-riverine regions is the competition and struggle for land and labour. 12
Causes of conflict during the civil war (1990 – Present): Clan based factions are controlling the regions of the country after the collapse of the Government. Natural resources and infrastructures such as sea ports, air fields, and roads are in the hands of clan militias. Well grown business of different kinds are also in the hands of clan based business companies. International aid assistance became another very important resource and it is controlled by who controls see ports, air fields and main roads.
Some examples of bloody conflicts from 1990 to present:
In Somaliland, for around 8 months, severe conflict happened caused by competition over the control of Berbera see port and Hargeisa airport the most two revenue generating points. After a long and successful reconciliation conference Somaliland communities declared its independency from the rest of Somalia in May 1991 and established Somaliland Government.
In Puntland, severe conflict took place between religious group and traditional elders and local politicians over the control of Bosaso see port. It seems that religious group was defeated; other version says that religious group declined from the war and left the elders and politicians manage the Bosaso port. Another bloody conflict occurred after that war for the command of Puntland administration which was a struggle for power between Col. Abdullahi Yusuf and General Jama Ali Jama.
In central regions, severe fighting happened for different reasons (for the control of an entire region like Hiran, for the ownership of piece of land and the control of a natural see port like Hobyo ect)
In Mogadishu, the bloodiest war was occurred between General Aidid and Mr. Ali Mahdi in 1992. The main National see and airports are closed because of disagreement over their control. Conflicts in Mogadishu are countless and mainly are caused by struggle for power – the means to access all other resources. The last was the one happened between Mogadishu warlords and Sharia corts in which sharia corts defeated the warlords.
In the south, the communities of south western regions have established a regional administration in March 1995 in Baidoa, but the late General Aidid attached on 17th September of the same year claiming that all south western regions are under his jurisdiction. After long freedom fighting, Baay and Bakool regions have been librated on 06 June 1999 by Reewin Resitance Army (RRA). But RRA leaders fought badly over the control of Bay and Bakool regions.
Other regions such as Lower Shabelle, parts of Lower and Middle Jubba and part of Gedo are still under occupation by other Somali nomadic clan militias.
Conflict Resolution and Reconciliation: Before colonial time, the main methods used as conflict resolution were either the Somali traditional customary law (Heer or Xeer) and the Islamic law (Sharia) and some times a mixture of the two. To implement these conflict resolutions, there should be an arbitration committee. If the conflict is not so big, the arbitration committee can be from the two fighting clans or sub clans; but if the conflict is of grate magnitude, the arbitration committee will be from different neighboring clans or sub clans.
During the three administrations (Colonial, corrupted Civilian Government and Military Dictatorship) conflict resolution was a mixture of traditional customary, Islamic sharia and administrative judiciary lows. After the collapse of the Military regime, every Somali went back to his clan identity - a complete disintegration of the colonial made nation.
During the civil war, usually conflicts protract for a long time until a clan is defeated - chased away or conquered. If two clans realize that no clan can defeat the other then the two negotiate for an alliance. A good example is (two veteran rival clans - Ceyr and Marehan in central regions) now are allied in the control of Jubba valley, controlling all resources (farming land, kismayo see and airports and all business transactions in the region) and the indigenous communities are suppressed and used as cheep labor or even enslaved.
While in Lower Shabelle region, farming land, irrigation canals, Ballidogle airport, Marka and Brawa natural see ports are controlled by Ceyr clan from central regions which has conquered the indigenous clans and their land and still occupying. Rewin Resistance Army and Dighil Salvation Army (RRA and DSA) have tried to liberate but yet did not succeeded.
14 reconciliation conferences were held for Southern Somalia to end this war and rebuild the Somali nation. But so far no tangible results came out. For sure the previous 13 were failed and the last is to wait and see because of the prevailing conditions and cirmunstances. Why all these are failed? Because of the following reasons:
1. Many Somalis are not serious and sincere to the reconciliation process, because they are occupying other people’s properties (private, communal and public farming lands and private and public premises; controlling all commercial activities and routes; controlling all humanitarian aid assistance). Reconciliation leading to peace and low and order is against their personal and clan interest.
2. In all reconciliation meetings the Islamic Sharia and the traditional Somali customary law were undermined and bypassed.
3. All conferences were not self sponsored and were not Somali initiatives as Somaliland did, but were sponsored by Some International organizations that may not be aware of the root cause of the war.
4. Reconciliation did not start from bottom, but always was started from top (establishing government) while the grass root community is not yet reconciled.
5. Some people don’t want any low and order because they fear the consequences of their human rights abuses and violations.
6. Some Somali Clans don’t want to hear Federalism. They still keep their mid in centralized Unitary state
Therefore, whatsoever is established (call it Government, Administration, or something else) is boycotted by the group who doesn’t want any law and order to continue exploiting other people’s resources by force. Some body claims that there is external factors playing role in keeping south Somalia as the status quo, but why these external forces have not played their role in Somaliland? Or they have no interest in Somaliland?
Somaliland is a good example in the Horn of Africa: The Elders of former British Somali Protectorate – present Somaliland have convened only three reconciliation conferences initiated and sponsored by them and all were successful. Why? Because first of all they were serious and sincere to the process of reconciliation, secondly they have pursued the Islamic law (Sharia) and the Somali customary law (Heer/Xeer) and reconciled before establishing any sort of administration or government. Now they are living in a peaceful environment building their government giving a good example of democracy to most African Countries.
Conflict prevention: The innate and intrinsic characteristic of the majority of Somalis is tribalism, ethnicity or kinship. Whatever ideology a Somali believes including religion (proverbs such as Faqi Tolkii kam ajanno tago, Rag iska celi iyo Rabi ka baq meel islama galaan, iyo La jiifiyaana bannaan are well known in all over Somalia) the promoting motive towards the application and implementation of the believed ideology is the personal and tribe interest.
There is another acquired characteristic of Somalis especially northern nomadic pastoralists - keeping in mind that state power is the only means to access the national resources, become wealthy by embezzlement of National resources and to fight for it (and that is why they are forcibly occupying other people’s lands).
Although in the south the situation is relatively complex, in terms of ethnic diversity, resources and the magnitude of the war, it is still possible with sincere will to reconciliation by pursuing the Islamic and the traditional Somali customary laws, both based on truth, compensation and/or forgiveness.
Therefore, to avoid and prevent disastrous conflicts after other 50 or hundred years, Somalis should adopt a federal system of governance. There is no question about the failure of centralized unitary state.
Federalism is emerged as the best conflict resolution method in Eastern Africa; see Sudan, Tanzania, and Ethiopia. It seems also that Somalis are moving towards this direction. In fact, although is only on paper, but during most of the Somali reconciliation conferences, Constitutions based on federal system have been often drafted and agreed upon. And our religion - Islam is not against federal system of governance (Nidamul Wilaayaat).
Now that the popular revolt led by Islamic Sharia Courts leaders have captured Mogadishu, I would suggest Islamist leaders to talk and reconcile with the Transitional Federal Government, and the TFG to appreciate the efforts paid the courts leaders to end Somali problem for good.
Thanks to Allah
June, 10th 2006
References:
1. Abdi M. Kusow; Putting the cart Before the Horse: Contested Nationalism and the Crisis of the Nation-State in Somalia; The Red See Press, Inc.; 2004
2. Saadia Touval; Somali Nationalism: International Politics and the drive for unity in the Horn of Africa; Harvad University Press; 1963
3. E. Sylvia Pankhurst; Ex – Italian Somaliland; WATTS and CO. London; 1951
4. E. Sylvia Pankhurst; Ex – Italian Somaliland; WATTS and CO. London 1951
5. Abdi M. Kusow; Putting the cart Before the Horse: Contested Nationalism and the Crisis of the nation-State in Somalia; The Red See Press, Inc.; 2004
6. Abdi M. Kusow; Putting the cart Before the Horse: Contested Nationalism and the Crisis of the Nation-State in Somalia; The Red See Press, Inc.; 2004
7. Saadia Touval; Somali Nationalsim: International Politics and the Drive for Unity in the Horn of Africa,; Harvad University Press; 1963
8. Angelo Del Boca – Gli Italiani in Africa Orietale; 1984
9. Angelo Del Boca – Gli Italiani in Africa Orietale;1984
10. Angelo Del Boca – Gli Italiani in Africa Orietale; 1984
11. Abdi M. Kusow; Putting the cart Before the Horse: Contested Nationalism and the Crisis of the Nation-State in Somalia; The Red See Press, Inc.; 2004
12. Casanelli, Lee V. and Catherina L. Bestman: The Streuggle for Land in Southern Somalia: The war behind the war. Colorado; 1996
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